Instructional Design Theories

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Instructional Design Theories & Augmented Reality

The following are synopses of several instructional design theories that are commonly linked to AR Simulation Games: Situated Cognition, Constructivism, and Digital Game-Based Learning.

Please review one of the three Instructional Design theories, and read the attached article. This will aid you in completing the Lesson Plan Task in Week 2/3.


Situated Cognition


In short, situated cognition (or cognitive apprenticeship) refers to the concept that learning and doing are inseparable. It stems from Vygotsky's idea (1977) that thinking, knowing, and understanding are the result of socio-historical experience. Brown et al (1989) note that in childhood through adulthood, individuals adopt the social behaviours of their groups. This leads to complex behaviour that only occurs when individuals observe others and practice relevant behaviours in-situ. The intellectual goal of situated cognition is to acquire cognitive skills and strategies through sustained participation in a community. Brown et. al (1989) outline other concepts that support situated learning:
  • Knowledge is a tool - you can have it but not know how to use it. Learners may pass an exam, but not have a practical ability to use a skill.
  • Knowledge must be used appropriately - this is a function of the culture and the activities in which the concept has been developed.
  • People become 'enculturated' - they adopt the actions and beliefs of their social groups
  • Real circumstances give meaning to learning
  • Group learning is a key aspect of the above concepts


Hendricks (2001) also found that situated learning improved students' use of causal reasoning in the area of science.

Please read the following article related to situated cognition:

Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42. Retrieved from: http://edr.sagepub.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/content/18/1/32.short

References

Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42.

Hendricks, C. (2001). Teaching causal reasoning through cognitive apprenticeship: What are results from situated learning? The Journal of Educational Research, 95(5), 302-311. Retrieved from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220670109598766

Vygotsky, L. (1977). The development of higher psychological functions. Soviet Psychology, 16, 60-73. (Original work published 1929).


Constructivist Learning Environments



Constructivism posits that knowledge is individually constructed by learners based on their interpretations of experiences in the world (Jonassen, 1999, p. 217). Jonassen proposed what he called “Constructivist Learning Environments” (CLEs) as educational environments that were created for the purposes of independent learning through constructivism (1999). In these situations, the instructor becomes the facilitator, guiding the learners through their knowledge building. Just like a player in a well-designed virtual simulation, the learner is the one in control in the constructivist learning environment.
construct_CLE.jpg

As the title suggests, “Designing Constructivist Learning Environments” describes a model for designing learner-centered constructivist learning environments. Jonassen’s stance is to introduce CLE’s as a way to engage the learner by giving learners ownership of their knowledge construction by making it meaningful to them. The model described by the author begins with a problem or question at the centre, and builds layers around it. The first layer is to provide examples of related cases to the learners, the next stage is to provide information resources and cognitive tools that can be used in the solving of the central problem. Upon this level, Jonassen suggests adding conversation or collaboration tools, so that learners can work together as a so-called “community of learners”, collaborating on a common solution (Jonassen, 1999, p.229). The final and outermost layer of the CLE model is of the contextual support, which could take the form of coaching, modeling or scaffolding by the instructional facilitator.


Please read the following to learn more about "Constructivist Learning Environments": (Chapter 10 in this e-Book)
Jonassen, D. H. (1999). Designing Constructivist Learning Environments, In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.) Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory(Volume II) (pp. 215-239). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Available from:
http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/ehost/detail?sid=7b508014-51d5-4d2e-aeaa-6e9748638834@sessionmgr4&vid=1#db=nlebk&AN=19406



References:

Jonassen, D. H. (1999). Designing Constructivist Learning Environments, In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.) Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory(Volume II) (pp. 215-239). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.


Digital Game-Based Learning


Games and simulations provide an entirely new way to engage the learner that has the potential to revolutionize the education industry.

James Gee of Arizona State University is considered by many to be one of the leading experts in game-based learning. In his 2009 book, “What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy”, he examines the learning process that occurs during commercially available video games. Gee refers to game based learning in terms of what he calls the semiotic domains: interpreting knowledge with pictures, sounds, ideas and more – which is beyond simply reading text-based information. Clark Aldrich called this shift to game and simulation-based education going from “learning to know” from “learning to do” (2009). Aldrich and Gee believed that some situations are better taught by experiential learning over traditional plain text.

Gee (2009) created 36 Learning Principles that good video games encompass, including:
  • active, critical learning
  • taking on identities or roles
  • learning about oneself
  • rewards provided as the player progresses
  • practice is provided
  • meanings are 'situated' - they have a different meaning based on their context
  • there are many ways to progress, and move ahead
  • information is presented 'just in time' and 'on-demand'
  • learners have the opportunity to think "consciously and reflectively about some of their cultural models regarding the world, without denigration of their identities, abilities, or social affiliations, and justapose them to new models that may conflict or otherwise relate to them in various ways" (p. 226)
  • meaning is built through various modalities (i.e. text, video, etc), not just words

In this author’s opinion, online game and simulation based education is the next stage of learning beyond the online classroom, which of course includes Augmented Reality based implementations. Combined with the many advantages of online learning, game and simulation based learning experiences can add a new level of understanding and engagement with the same convenience enjoyed by current online students.


Please read the following article if you have selected "Digital Game Based Learning":
Yun-Jo, A. & Bonk, C.J. (2009). Designing Digital Game-Based Learning Environments.TechTrends (Vol.53, No.3, pp.43-48). Bloomington, IN: AECT Publishing.
Available from: http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/ehost/detail?sid=c70b2131-8937-47cf-84fc-627b29a7ad25%40sessionmgr12&vid=1&hid=10&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=ofs&AN=508060206

References:

Aldrich, C. (2004) Simulations and the Future of Learning. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer, Wiley.

Aldrich, C. (2009) The Complete Guide to Simulations and Serious Games. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer, Wiley.

Hirumi, A., Appleman, B., Rieber, L. & Van Eck, R. (2010). Preparing Instructional Designers for Game-Based Learning: Part 1. TechTrends (Vol.54, No.3, pp.27-37). Bloomington, IN: AECT Publishing.

Gee, J.P. (2007). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan.

Shor, M. (2006). Lecture Notes in Game Theory – Game Theory University Courses [website]. Retrieved on February 16 from http://www.gametheory.net/lectures/level.pl

University of Calgary(2010). New Video Game Library [website] Retrieved on February 15 from http://www.ucalgary.ca/news/utoday/september23-2010/games